Mechanical color mixing. Color mixing. Optical Color Mixing - Knowledge Hypermarket

rTPVMENB YURPMSH'PCHBOYS GCHEFB - PDOB Y UBNSHCHI UMPTSOSCHI Y NOPZPZTBOOSCHI CH BTIYFELFKhTE. tBMYUOSCHE BURELFSHCH YFPK RTPVMENSCH FTEVHAF DMS UCHPEZP TEYOYOS UCHNEUFOSHCHI KHUYMYK BTIYFELFPTPCH Y RTEDUFBCHYFEMEK EUFEUFCHEOOOSCHI Y FPUOSCHI OBHL. FTHDOP ULBBFSH, YuEK CHLMBD CH TBCHYFYE OBKHLY P GCHEFE VPMSHIE: ZHYYLB oSHAFPOB YMY IHDPTSOYLB MEPOBTDP DB CHOYUY, ZHYYPMPZB LTBCHLPCHB YMY RPFB ZEFE. pFMYUOSCHE TEHMSHFBFSCH DBCHBMB FCHPTYUEULBS DTHTSVB, UCHSSCHCHBAEBS MADEK UBNSCHI TBOSCHI RTPZHEUUIK. BLPOSHCH PRFYUEULPZP UNEYEYOYS GCHEFCH, YJHYUEOYEN LP-FPTSCHI BOINBMUS ZHYYL YECHTEMSH, RPMPTSYMY OBYUBMP FCHPTYUEULPK MBVPTBFPTYY IHDPTSOILB UETB. ZEFE, PRYUBCH ЪBUOETSEOOSCHE bMShRSCH CH UCHPEN RYUSHNE YUEYULPNKH ZHYYYPMPZH rHTLYOE, RPNPZ RPUMEDOENKH UZHPTNKHMYTPCHBFSH "LZhZHELF rHTLYOE".

BDBYuY, TEYBENSCHE GCHEFPN CH YOFETSHETE, NOPZPYUYUMEOOSCH Y TBOPUPFTPOOY. "вЕЪ ГЧЕФБ БТИЙФЕЛФХТБ ОЕЧЩТБЪЙФЕМШОБ, УМЕРБ,- ЗПЧПТЙФ фЕП ЧБО дХУВХТЗ, ПДЙО ЙЪ РТЕДУФБЧЙФЕМЕК ЗТХРРЩ "дЕ уФЙМШ", Й РТПДПМЦБЕФ: - рПФТЕВОПУФШ УПЧТЕНЕООПЗП ЮЕМПЧЕЛБ Ч ГЧЕФЕ ФБЛ ЦЕ ЧЕМЙЛБ, ЛБЛ РПФТЕВОПУФШ Ч УЧЕФЕ, ДЧЙЦЕОЙЙ (ФБОГЕ) Й ДБЦЕ Ч ЪЧХЛБИ. CHUE FFP - PUOPCHOSHE JBLFPTSCH CH TSOYOY UPCTENEOOSHCHI MADEK, YI UPCHTENEOOBS "OETCHOBS UYUFENB".

CH FYI UMPCHBI - RTJOBOYE BL GCHEFPN URPUPVOPUFY CHSHUFHRBFSH CH LBYUEUFCHE OBLPCH PGEOPYuOPZP IBTBLFETB, PTYEOFYTPCHBFSH YuEMPCHELB CH RTPUFTBOUFCHE. оП ЬФП МЙЫШ ПДОБ ЗТХРРБ ЪБДБЮ ПОФПМПЗЙЮЕУЛПЗП РМБОБ, ПВЕУРЕЮЙЧБАЭЙИ РЕТЧЩК ХТПЧЕОШ ПТЗБОЙЪБГЙЙ БТИЙФЕЛФХТОПЗП РТПУФТБОУФЧБ, ЛПЗДБ ГЧЕФ УРПУПВЕО ЧЩРПМОСФШ ТПМШ ВЙПМПЗЙЮЕУЛЙ ОЕПВИПДЙНЩИ РТПУФТБОУФЧЕООЩИ ЛПОУФБОФ. OE NEOEE CHBTSOPK SCHMSEFUS GCHEFB Y ABOUT RPUMEDHAEYI HTPCHOSI, LPZDB GCHEF RPNPZBEF CHSHCHSCHMSFSH JHOLGYPOBMSHOHA Y UENBOFYUEULHA OBYUYNPUFSH RTPUFTBOUFCHB.

UPDBOYE GCHEFPPK UTEDSCH, PVMBDBAEEK RTJOBLPN GEMSHOPUFY Y BLPOYUEOOPUFY, FTEVHEF LPNRMELUOPZP RPDIPDB L PRTEDEMEOYA ZTBOYG Y GEMEK YURPMSH'PCHBOIS GCHEFB CH YOFETSHETE. фП ЕУФШ, ЗТХРРБ ЛПНРПЪЙГЙПООЩИ ЪБДБЮ, Ч РТПГЕУУЕ ТЕЫЕОЙС ЛПФПТЩИ БТИЙФЕЛФПТ УРПУПВЕО ЧЩСЧЙФШ Й РПДЮЕТЛОХФШ У РПНПЭША ГЧЕФБ МПЗЙЛХ ПВЯЕНОП-РТПУФТБОУФЧЕООПК УФТХЛФХТЩ, ОЕПФДЕМЙНБ ПФ ЪБДБЮ РП УПЪДБОЙА РУЙИПЖЙЪЙПМПЗЙЮЕУЛПЗП ЛПНЖПТФБ Ч РПНЕЭЕОЙЙ, Й РТЕОЕВТЕЦЕОЙЕ МАВПК ЙЪ УФПТПО ГЧЕФПЧПЗП ЧПЪДЕКУФЧЙС ПРБУОП Й ЮТЕЧБФП РПУМЕДУФЧЙСНЙ. чЕМЙЛПМЕРОП ПИБТБЛФЕТЙЪПЧБМ ЬФХ УРЕГЙЖЙЛХ ГЧЕФБ УПЧТЕНЕООЩК ЖТБОГХЪУЛЙК ЙУУМЕДПЧБФЕМШ цБЛ чШЕОП: "гЧЕФ УРПУПВЕО ОБ ЧУЕ: ПО НПЦЕФ ТПДЙФШ УЧЕФ, ХУРПЛПЕОЙЕ ЙМЙ ЧПЪВХЦДЕОЙЕ. пО НПЦЕФ УПЪДБФШ ЗБТНПОЙА ЙМЙ ЧЩЪЧБФШ РПФТСУЕОЙЕ; ПФ ОЕЗП НПЦОП ЦДБФШ ЮХДЕУ, ОП ПО НПЦЕФ ЧЩЪЧБФШ Й ЛБФБУФТПЖХ".

ЪОБОЙЕ ПУОПЧОЩИ ЪБЛПОПНЕТОПУФЕК ГЧЕФПЧПЗП ЧПЪДЕКУФЧЙС, ПЧМБДЕОЙЕ НЕФПДЙЛПК ЬЛУРЕТЙНЕОФБМШОПК РТПЧЕТЛЙ, ХЮЕФ ЧЩСЧМЕООЩИ ЪБЛПОПНЕТОПУФЕК Ч РТПЕЛФОПК ДЕСФЕМШОПУФЙ - ОЕРТЕНЕООПЕ ХУМПЧЙЕ РТПЖЕУУЙПОБМШОПК ДЕСФЕМШОПУФЙ БТИЙФЕЛФПТПЧ. CHEDSH UEZPDOS, RP UMPCHBN Zh. m. pChMBDEOYE NEFPDYLPK PGEOLY Y ZHPTNYTPCHBOYS GCHEFPPK UTEDSCH SCHMSEFUS CHBTsOPK UPUFBCHOPK YUBUFSHHA RPDZPFPCHLY UFHDEOFPC-BTIYFELFPTPCH.

YOZHPTNBGYPOOBS UHEOPUFSH GCHEFB

EUMY RPRTPUYFSH UPVEUEDOYLB PLTBUIFSH DCHB LCHBDTBFB ABOUT VKHNBZE CH LTBUOSCHK Y UYOYK GCHEFB, FP ЪBDBYUB VHDEF YNEFSH OEPRTEDEMEOOOSCHK CHYD Y NOPTSEUFCHP TEYOYOK. оП РТЙ РПУФБОПЧЛЕ ЪБДБЮЙ НПЦОП РТЕДХУНПФТЕФШ ПЗТБОЙЮЕОЙС ЛПМЙЮЕУФЧЕООПЗП ЙМЙ ЛБЮЕУФЧЕООПЗП РМБОБ, ЪБДБЧ УЧЕФМПФХ, ОБУЩЭЕООПУФШ ЙМЙ ГЧЕФПЧПК ФПО ПВТБЪГПЧ МЙВП РТЕДМПЦЙЧ У РПНПЭША ГЧЕФПЧПЗП УПЮЕФБОЙС ЧЩЪЧБФШ Х ЪТЙФЕМС ПРТЕДЕМЕООПЕ ОБУФТПЕОЙЕ.
BDBYUB "LTBUOPE-UYOEEE" RPMHYUYMB GEMECHHA HUFBOPCHLH. rTY VPMSHYPK UCHPVVPDE CH CHSHVPTE YЪPVTB-ЪFEMSHOSHCHI UTEDUFCH POB CHUE-FBLY UFBMB VPMEE PRTEDEMEOOOPK. tbkhneefus, rtednefosche buupgybgyy x lbtsdpzp yuempchchelb chshchchchkhf uchp rtedufbchmeoye p gchefe "ltbuopk yetoy" i "fkhnboop-uyoyi szpd", op ffp vkhdef vkhdef upyuefboye umptsoschi, "mpnbopchol.

RTYOYNBS GCHEFPPCHPE TEYOYE, BTIYFELFPT RSHCHFBEFUS RTEDPREDEMYFSH TEBLGYA TYFEMS YCH PRTEDEMEOOOPK NET RTPZTBNNYTHEF FFH TEBLGYA. рТПЗОПЪ ГЧЕФПЧПЗП ЧПЪДЕКУФЧЙС ДЕМБЕФУС ОБ ПУОПЧБОЙЙ ЪОБОЙК Й РТЕДУФБЧМЕОЙК, ЛПФПТЩЕ ЙНЕАФУС Х БТИЙФЕЛФПТБ, РХФЕН ЛПНРМЕЛУОПЗП ЙУУМЕДПЧБОЙС РТПВМЕНЩ, РПУФТПЕОЙС ПВПВЭЕООПЗП УЙУФЕНОПЗП ЬФБМПОБ "ГЧЕФПЧБС УТЕДБ" ДМС ДБООПК ЛПОЛТЕФОПК УЙФХБГЙЙ. йЪХЮЕОЙЕ ГЧЕФПЧПЗП ЧПЪДЕКУФЧЙС ЙНЕЕФ НОПЗПЧЕЛПЧХА ЙУФПТЙА, Й ОБЫЙНЙ УЕЗПДОСЫОЙНЙ УЧЕДЕОЙСНЙ П ТЕБЛГЙСИ ЮЕМПЧЕЮЕУЛПЗП ПТЗБОЙЪНБ ОБ ГЧЕФПЧЩЕ ТБЪДТБЦЕОЙС ЧОЕЫОЕК УТЕДЩ НЩ ПВСЪБОЩ ЛБЛ БРТЙПТОЩН ДБООЩН ИХДПЦОЙЛПЧ Й БТИЙФЕЛФПТПЧ, ФБЛ Й ЖБЛФПМПЗЙЮЕУЛПНХ НБФЕТЙБМХ Й ЧЩЧПДБН, УДЕМБООЩН РТЕДУФБЧЙФЕМСНЙ ФПЮОЩИ ОБХЛ. OP OE NEOEE CHBTSOPK Y OHTSOPK SCHMSEFUS UFBDYS PUNSHUMEOYS LFYI DBOOSCHI U RPYGYK DYBMELFYUEULPZP NBFETYIBMYYNB, CHCHTBVPFLY PUOPCHOSHI LBFEZPTYK.

ABOUT RTPFSEOY CHELCH UPVYTBMYUSH Y OBLBRMYCHBMYUSH UCHEDEOYS P TPMY GCHEFB, UFTPIMBUSH GCHEFPCHBS UYinchpmyilb. оБХЛБ Ч РТПГЕУУЕ ТБЪЧЙФЙС РТПЧЕТЙМБ Й УЙУФЕНБФЙЪЙТПЧБМБ ЬФЙ УЧЕДЕОЙС, ОП ВЕЪ ХЮЕФБ ИХДПЦЕУФЧЕООПЗП Й ЛХМШФХТОПЗП ОБУМЕДЙС, ВЕЪ ЮХЧУФЧЕООПЗП ПУНЩУМЕОЙС ГЧЕФПЧПЗП ЧПЪДЕКУФЧЙС ВЩМЙ ВЩ ОЕЧПЪНПЦОЩ ЖПТНЙТПЧБОЙЕ Й УФБОПЧМЕОЙЕ УЙУФЕНОПЗП РПДИПДБ Й УПЧТЕНЕООБС УФБДЙС ЙУРПМШЪПЧБОЙС ДБООЩИ П ТПМЙ ГЧЕФБ Ч ЮЕМПЧЕЮЕУЛПК ЦЙЪОЙ.

рТПВМЕНБ ГЧЕФБ ЙУЛМАЮЙФЕМШОП УМПЦОБ, ЧПЪДЕКУФЧЙЕ ГЧЕФБ БЛФЙЧОП Й НОПЗПХТПЧОЕЧП - ЧУЕ ЬФП ДЙЛФХЕФ ОЕПВИПДЙНПУФШ УПЮЕФБОЙС ЛМБУУЙЮЕУЛЙИ НЕФПДПЧ МПЗЙЮЕУЛПЗП ПРЙУБОЙС У НЕФПДБНЙ ФПЮОЩИ ОБХЛ, ЙУРПМШЪПЧБОЙС НЕФПДПЧ УЙУФЕНОПЗП БОБМЙЪБ Ч ЙЪХЮЕОЙЙ ЬФПК РТПВМЕНЩ У РПЪЙГЙК НБТЛУЙУФУЛПК ДЙБМЕЛФЙЛЙ. TEBLGYS YUEMPCHELB ABOUT GCHEF YNEEF LPNRMELUOSCHK IBTBLFET Y OEULPMSHLP BURELFPCH; БУРЕЛФ ЖЙЪЙПМПЗЙЮЕУЛЙК, ЛПЗДБ ОБЫЕ ПЭХЭЕОЙЕ ПФ РТЙНЕОЕООПК ГЧЕФПЧПК ЗТХРРЩ ЙМЙ ПФДЕМШОПЗП ГЧЕФБ ЪБЧЙУЙФ ПФ УЙМЩ Й УРЕЛФТБМШОПЗП УПУФБЧБ ЙЪМХЮЕОЙС, ПФ РТПДПМЦЙФЕМШОПУФЙ ЧПЪДЕКУФЧЙС ЕЗП ОБ ОБВМАДБФЕМС, ПФ ХУМПЧЙК ОБВМАДЕОЙС; BURELF RUYIPMPZYUEULYK, RTYOBAEIK ЪB GCHEFPN UBNPUFPSFEMSHOKHA Y BLFIYCHOKHA TPMSh, URPUPVOPUFSH CHSHCHSHCHCHBFSH BUUPGYBGYY Y Y NPGYPOBMSHOP PLTBYCHBFSH TEBLGYA YuEMPCHELB; BURELF YUFEFYYUEULYK, YUIPDOK RTEDRPUSHMLPK LPFPTPZP SCHMSEFUS RTYOBOYE bb GCHEFPN URPUPVOPUFY ZBTNPOYJPCHBFSH GCHEFPCHHA UIENH YOFETSHETB. eUFEUFCHEOOOSCHE OBHLY OBLPRYMY VPMSHYPK LLURETYNEOFBMSHOSHCHK NBFETYBM P CHMYSOY GCHEFB ABOUT YuEMPCHEYUEULYK PTZBOYIN.

НЕФПДЩ ПГЕОЛЙ ГЧЕФПЧПЗП ЧПЪДЕКУФЧЙС ЧЛМАЮБАФ ПРТПУ, ЙУРПМШЪПЧБОЙЕ ФЕУФПЧЩИ ФБВМЙГ Й ЙОУФТХНЕОФБМШОЩЕ ЪБНЕТЩ, ФБЛ ЛБЛ РУЙИПЖЙЪЙПМПЗЙЮЕУЛБС ТЕБЛГЙС ЮЕМПЧЕЛБ ОБ ГЧЕФ ПВЯСУОСЕФУС ОБМЙЮЙЕН УЧСЪЙ НЕЦДХ ГЧЕФПЧЩН ЪТЕОЙЕН Й ЧЕЗЕФБФЙЧОПК ОЕТЧОПК УЙУФЕНПК (РП ДБООЩН м. пТВЕМЙ, у. лТБЧЛПЧБ Й ДТ.). OBYVPMEE RPMOP YЪHYUEOB ZHYYYPMPZYUEULBS UPUFBCHMSAEBS SFPC TEBLGIY. h OBYUBME OBYEZP CHELB RPSCHYMYUSH TBVPFSh n. dPZEMS, fTYCHKHUB, uFEZHBOEULKh-zPBOZB, Ch LPFPTSCHI BCHFPTSCH HLBSCCHCHBMY OB UHEEUFCHPCHBOYE RTSNPC YBCHYUYNPUFY NETSDH YЪNEOEOYSNNY GCHEFPPCHPZP PUCHEEEEOIS Y YUBUFPFPK Y BNRMEFSHUBKhD UFEZHBOEUULKh-zPBOZ PDOIN Y' RETCHSCHI RTCHEM PRSHCHFSCH, CH LPFPTSCHI NEFPD UMPCHEUOPZP PRTPUB UPYUEFBMUS U NEFPDPN Y'NETEOIS TSDB ZHYYPMPZYYUEULYI RPLBBOIK (1911). RP EZP DBOOSCHN, GCHEFB RKhTRHTOSHCHK, LTBUOSCHCHK, PTBOTSECHSHCHK, TSEMFSHCHK CHSHCHSHCHCHBMY H YuEMPCHELB HYUBEEOYE Y HUYMEOYE RHMSHUB, RTYUEN OBYVPMEE PFUEFMYCHSHCHNY VSCHMY YNEOEOYS RTY LTBUOPN GCHEFE. RPD DEKUFCHYEN BEMEOPZP, UYOEZP, ZPMKHVPZP Y ZJPMEFPCHPZP GCHEFPCH OBVMADBMBUSH PVTBFOBS TEBLGYS, F.E.

YUUMEDPCHBOIS RPUMEDOYI MEF (b. oENYUYU, 1970) YOFETEUOPK PLBBMBUSH TBVPFB l. ZPMSHDYFEKOB (1927). bCHFPT YЪHYUBM CHPDEKUFCHIE ABOUT YUEMPCCHELB VPMSHYPK, YOFEOUYCHOP PLTBIEOOOPK RMPULPUFY. йЪНЕТСС ТБУУФПСОЙЕ НЕЦДХ ЧЩФСОХФЩНЙ ЧРЕТЕД ТХЛБНЙ, ПО ЧЩСУОЙМ, ЮФП РПД ЧМЙСОЙЕН ФЕРМЩИ ГЧЕФПЧ, Й Ч РЕТЧХА ПЮЕТЕДШ ЛТБУОПЗП, ЙУРЩФХЕНЩЕ ТБЪДЧЙЗБМЙ ТХЛЙ Й, ОБПВПТПФ, УЧПДЙМЙ ЙИ РПД ЧМЙСОЙЕН ФБЛЙИ И ПМПДОЩИ ГЧЕФПЧ, ЛБЛ УЙОЙК Й ЪЕМЕОЩК. h LOYSE "pTZBOYEN" l. ZPMSHDYFEKO RYYEF, UFP "GCHEF PLBSHCHCHBEF UFYNKHMYTHAEEEE CHMYSOYE ABOUT YUEMPCHE-YUEULYK PTZBOYIN". rP EZP NOOEOYA, GCHEF CHMYSEF ABOUT IBTBLFET Y ULPTPUFSH DCHYTSEOIK. YOFHYFICHOBS PGEOLB TBUUFPSOIK, CHTENEOOSHHI YOFETCHBMPCH, CHEUB RTEDNEFB OEPDYOBLPCHB RPD CHPDEKUFCHYEN TBMYUOSCHI GCHEFPCH.

vPMSHYPE LPMYUEUFCHP YUUMEDPCHBOYK VSHMP RTPCHEDEOP RP PGEOLE CHMYSOIS UTEDOECHPMOPCHPK YUBUFY URELFTTB (PVMBUFSH TsEMFP-YEMEOSHCHI GCHEFCH)

PRSCHFShch e. uENEOPCHULPK (1948), v. BTEGLPK (1950) RPLBBMY, YuFP RPD DEKUFCHYEN LTBUOPZP GCHEFB WOYTSBEFUSS LMELFTYUEULBS YUHCHUFCHYFEMSHOPUFSH ZMBBB; RTY BDBRFBGYY L BEMEOPNH GCHEFH OBVMADBMPUSH PVTBFOPE SCHMEOYE. CHOHFTYZMBOPE DBCHMEOYE (RP DBOOSCHN u. lTBCHLPCHB Y EZP UPFTHDOYLPCH) HNEOSHYBEFUS RPD CHMYSOYEN JEMEOZP GCHEFB Y HCHEMYYUYCHBEFUS RPD CHMYSOYEN LTBUOPZP. yuumedpchboys e. tbvlyob, e. uplpmpchpk (1961) BDBRFBGIS ZMBB L CEMFPNKh, BEMEOPNKH Y VEMPNKh GCHEFBN RPCHSHCHYBEF TBVPFPURPUPVOPUFSH TYFEMSHOPZP BOMBMYBFPPT b. RPD CHMYSOYEN TSE LTBUOPZP Y UYOEZP GCHEFCH CHUE RETEYUUMEOOSCHE TYFEMSHOSHCHE ZHHOLGYY KHIKHDYBAFUUS. With. oEKYFBDF, f. yHVPChB, m.
bChFPTSCH UIPDSFUS PE NOOYY, UFP CEMFSHCHK UCHEF SCHMSEFUS OBYVPMEE VMBZPRTYSFOSHCHN, B UBNSCHN OEVMBZPRTYSFOSCHN - LTBUOSCHK(OYFZPZH, TEKIEOWEI, 1927) JETTY Y TYOD (1922) YUUMEDPCHBMY CHMYSOYE GCHEFB ZHPOB OB FE CE ZHHOLGYY TEOYS, UFP Y OBCHBOOSCHE CHCHY BCHFPTSCH. TEEKHMSHFBFSCH YI TBVPFSCH RPLBBMY, YuFP ULPTPUFSH TBMYUEOIS, PUFTPFB ЪTEOYS Y HUFPKYUYCHPUFSH SUOPZP CHIDEOYS OBYVPMEE CHSHCHUPLY RTY CEMFPN GCHEFE ZHPOB.

VPMSHYPK YOFETEU RTEDUFBCHMSAF TBVPFSCH RP YUUMEDPCHBOYA BLCHYUYNPUFY NETsDH GCEFPCCHN TEOYEN Y PTZBOBNY UMHIB, PVPPOSOIS, CHLHUB. h UCHPYI PRSHCHFBI m. yChBTG (1948) tBVPFB ZPZHNBOB Y ULBMShCHEKFB (1953) UPDETCYF DBOOSCHE P FPN, UFP UHVYAELFICHOBS PGEOLB FENRETBFKhTSCH LPMEVMEFUS OB 2-3° RTY BDBRFBGYY L TBMYUOSCHN GCHEFPCHSHCHN RPMSN. s. JETE, h. Losyechb, s. lBNEOULBS YЪHYUBMY CHMYSOIE GCHEFB ABOUT TBVPFPPURPVOPUFSH. tbvpfb s. ZhETE VSCHMB PDOPK Y RETCHSHI, CH LPFPTPK HLBSHCHCHBMPUSH OBCHYUYNPUFSH NETsDH GCHEFPN UCHEFB Y NSCHYYUOPK TBVPFPPURPUPVOPUFSHHA. bChFPT RTCHEM DCHE UETYY PRSHCHFCH.

H RETCHPK UETYY PO U RPNPESH DYOBNPNEFTB YJNETSM DENPZEOOKHA UIMH THLY RTY TBOPN GCHEFE UCHEFB.

PE ChFPTPK UETYY PRSHCHFCH ZhETE RTPIYCHPDYM YЪNETEOIS U RPNPESHHA TZPZTBZHB Y UDEMBM UMEDHAEYE CHCHCHPDSH: RTY PYUEOSH LTBFLPCHTENEOOOPK TBVPFE LTBUOSCHK GCHEF RPCSHCHYBEF RTPYCHPDYFEMSHOPUFSH; PTBOTSECHSHCHK, CEMFSHCHK Y EMEOSHCHK DEKUFCHHAF RPDPVOP DOECHOPNH UCHEFH; UYOYK Y ZHYPMEFPCHSHCHK OBNOPOZP UOYTSBAF RTPYЪCHPDYFEMSHOPUFSH; RTETSHCHCHBAEEEUS DEKUFCHYE GCHEFB, F. E. PFDSHCHI H HUMPCHYSI VEMPZP DOECHOPZP UCHEFB RPUME FTHDB RTY DTHZPN PUCHEEEEOYY, OBBYUYFEMSHOP RPCHSHCHYBEF RTPYCHPDYFEMSHOPUFSH. BOBMY, RTPCHEDEOOSHK z. lBNEOUULPK (1973), CHULTSCHM UKHEUFCHEOOOSCHE PYYVLY CH NEFPDYLE LURETYNEOFB JETE. th, FEN OE NEOEE, PYO YЪ EZP CHCHCHPDCH - P RTETSHCHYUFPN DEKUFCHY GCHEFB - UBUMHTSYCHBEF CHOYNBOYS Y FTEVHEF DBMSHOEKYEK LLURETYNEOFBMSHOPK RTPCHETLY.

RTYCHEDEOOOSCHE TBVPFSCH RPCHPMYMY TBUUNBFTYCHBFSH GCHEFB UTEDOECPMOPCHPK YUBUFY URELFTB CH LBYUEUFCHE "PRFYNBMSHOSHCHI", OP LFP EEE OE NPZMP VSHCHFSH TEYOYEN RTPVMENSCH GEFPCHPZP LMYNBFB CH GEMPNBFB. YUUMEDPCHBOYS RPUMEDOYI MEF RPLBBMY, UFP ZHYYPMPZYYUEULYE UDCHYZY RTPYUIPDSF X YUEMPCELB RPD CHPDEKUFCHYEN FUNCTIONAL STYLE GCHEFCH(zh. mBNRETF, 1968). yUUMEDCHBOYS e. aUFPCHPK (1948), h. lBNEOWULPK (1967), . about. VEMSECHPK (1978) RPLBBMY, UFP ABOUT GCHEFPCHHA TYFEMSHOHA BDBRFBGYA Y TYFEMSHOPE HFPNMEOYE CHMYSEF CH PUOPCHOPN OBUSHEEOOPUFSH GCHEFB, BOE GCHEFPCHPK FPO YMKHYUEOYS.

ОЕЛПФПТЩЕ БЧФПТЩ, ОБРТЙНЕТ лЕФЮЕН, ЧЩУЛБЪБМЙ РТЕДРПМПЦЕОЙЕ, ЮФП ЙУРПМШЪПЧБОЙЕ ПДОЙИ Й ФЕИ ЦЕ ГЧЕФПЧ, ЧЩВТБООЩИ ЪБ УЧПЙ ЖЙЪЙПМПЗЙЮЕУЛЙЕ ЛБЮЕУФЧБ, НПЦЕФ РТЙЧЕУФЙ Л ИХДПЦЕУФЧЕООПНХ ПДОППВТБЪЙА. MAVPK GCHEF, EUMY PO UTBCHOYFEMSHOP FENOSHCHK Y BUSHCHEEOOSCHK Y EUMY PO L FPNKh TSE OBIPDIFUS RPUFPSOOP CH RPME ЪTEOYS TBVPFBAEEZP Yuempchchelb, URPUPVUFCHHEF ЪTYFEMSHOPNH Y PVEEGHYYUFPSOOP. rPFPPNKh PYUEOSH CHBTSOP HYUYFSHCHCHBFSH RUYIPMPZYYUEULHA UPUFBCHMSAEHA YUEMPCHEYUEULPK TEBLGIY ABOUT GCHEF. yuEMPCHEYUEULBS MYUOPUFSH ZHPTNYTHEFUS Y TBCHYCHBEFUS CH UMPTSOPN CHBYNPDEKUFCHYY U PLTHTSBAEK UTEDPK. VE URPUPVOPUFY RTYURPUBVMYCHBFSHUS L PLTHTSBAEK UTEDE, L CHOEYOYN TBDTTBSEOYSN YuEMPCHEL OE REFINER VSHCH UHEUFCHPCHBFSH, OE UNPZ VSHCHCHTSYFSH. gCHEFCHPE UCHPEPVTBJE PLTHTSBAEEZP NYTB UZHPTNYTPCHBMP PFOPOEOYE YuEMPCHELB L GCHEFKH, PFLMPOEOYE PF RTYCHSHCHYUOSCHI GCHEFPPUYEFBOYK CHSHCHCHCHBMP FTECHPZH, PVPUFTSMP TEBLGYA.

FBL UMPTSYMBUSH RUYIPMPZYUEULBS TEBLGYS YUAMPCHELB ABOUT LTBUOSCHK GCHEF LBL GCHEF FTECHPZY, RMBNEOY, LTPCHY. рУЙИПМПЗЙЮЕУЛЙК БУРЕЛФ ЧПУРТЙСФЙС ЮЕМПЧЕЛПН ГЧЕФБ УЧСЪБО У ЛХМШФХТОЩНЙ, НЙТПЧПЪЪТЕОЮЕУЛЙНЙ, ЬУФЕФЙЮЕУЛЙНЙ ФТБДЙГЙСНЙ УТЕДЩ, Ч ЛПФПТПК ЧЩТПУ Й УЖПТНЙТПЧБМУС ЮЕМПЧЕЛ, ЕЗП РТПЫМЩН ПРЩФПН, РБ-НСФША, БУУПГЙБФЙЧОЩН ИБТБЛФЕТПН НЩЫМЕОЙС. PUPVHA TPMSh YZTBAF RTYTPDOSHCHE BUUPHYBGYY. RP UMPCHBN zhTYMYOZB Y bKhTB, "CHUE GCHEFPCHSCHE RTEDUFBCHMEOYS YuEMPCHELB - PFTBTSEOYE RTYTPDOSCHI UPPFOPIEOYK". rTYTPDOSCHE BUUPGYBGYY MEZMY CH PUOPCHKH DEMEOYS GCHEFCH URELFTB ABOUT FARMSHIE Y IPMPDOSHCHE. DEMEOYE LFP DPUFBFPYuOP HUMPCHOP, FBL LBL UPUEDOYE GCHEFB PDOK ZTHRRSHCH URELFTB CH UCHPA PUETEDSH CHUFHRBAF CH PFOPIEOYIS "FERMSCHK - IPMPDOSHK". th, OBLPOEG, PYO Y FPF CE GCHEF LBCEFUS VPMEE FERMSHCHN YMY VPMEE IPMPDOSCHN H BCHYUYNPUFY PF ZHPOB, ABOUT LPFPTPN ON CHPURTYOYNBEFUS.

BUUPGYBGYY CHNEUFE U TSDPN TYFEMSHOSHCHI YMMAYK SCHMSAFUS RTYUYOBNY FPZP, UFP TBMYUOSCHE GCHEFB RP-TBBOPNKh HYUBUFCHHAF H ZHPTNYTPCHBOY RTPUFTBOUFCHEOOOSCHI RTEDUFBCHMEOYK YuEMPCHELBOYK. pDYOBLPCHSHCHE RP TBNETBN RTEDNEFSHCH, YNEAEYE TBBOHA PLTBULH, CHPURTYOYNBAFUS TBMYUOSCHNY RP CHEMYUYOE. y DCHHI PYOBLPCHSCHI RP CHEMYUOYOE RTEDNEFPCH, PLTBYEOOSCHI CH UCHEFMSCHK Y FENOSCHK FPOB, UCHEFMSCHK RTEDNEF LBTCEFUS VPMSHIE FENOZPZP. йЪ ПДОПЧТЕНЕООП ТБУУНБФТЙЧБЕНЩИ ТБЧОЩИ РП ЧЕМЙЮЙОЕ РТЕДНЕФПЧ ОБЙВПМШЫЙН ЛБЦЕФУС РТЕДНЕФ, ПЛТБЫЕООЩК Ч БИТПНБФЙЮЕУЛЙК ГЧЕФ, ЪБФЕН - Ч ПДЙО ИТПНБФЙЮЕУЛЙК Й ОБЙНЕОШЫЙН ЛБЦЕФУС РТЕДНЕФ, Ч ПЛТБУЛЕ ЛПФПТПЗП ЙУРПМШЪПЧБОП ОЕУЛПМШЛП ГЧЕФПЧ.

PFUADB CHSHCHFELBEF YZHZHELF "KHCHEMYYUYCHBAEYI" Y "KHNEOSHYBAEYI" GCHEFHR. YMMAYEK YNEOEOYS CHEMYUOYOSCH RTEDNEFB UCHSBOB Y TYFEMSHOBS PGEOLB CHEUB RTEDNEPCH. UCHEFMShCHK RTEDNEF LBCEPHUS MEZUE PHENOPZP. y DCHHI RTEDNEFPCH, PLTBIEOOOSCHI CH DPUFBFPYuOP UCHEFMSHCHE ITPNBFYUEULYE GCHEFB, VPMEE MEZLYN LBTCEFUS FPF, LPFPTSCHK PLTBYEO CH IPMPDOSHK GCHEF. y FPC YMMAYY CHSHCHFELBEF DEMEOYE ABOUT "FTSEMSHCHE" Y "MEZLYE" GCHEFB: FENOSHCHE, NBMPOBUSCHEEOOSCHE, FARMSHCHE GCHEFB PGEOYCHBAFUS LBL FTSEMSHCHE, B UCHEFMSHCHE, IPMPDOSHCHE - LBL MEZLYE GCHEFB. RTY UTBCHOEOYY YUYUFSHCHI URELFTBMSHOSCHI GCHEFPCH VPMEE MEZLYNY RTYOSFP UYUYFBFSH TSEMFSHCHE GCHEFB U RPUFEREOOSCHN HFSTSEMEOYEN YUETE PTBOTSECHSHCHE L LTBUOSCHN Y YUETEE EMEOSHCH Y UYOYE L ZHJPMEFPCHCHN. RTY TBOPK OBUSHCHEEOOPUFY VPMEE FTSEMSHCHNY LBTSHFUS OBUSHCHEEOOSCHE GCHEFB. PYUEOSH CHBTSOSCHK LZHZHELF CHSHUFHRBOYS Y PFUFHRBOYS GCHEFPCH PUOPCHSHCHCHBEFUS Y ABOUT BUUPGYBFICHOSHI RTEDUFBCHMEOYSI Y ABOUT PYAELFYCHOSHI BLOPNETOPUFSI ZHYYYPMPZYUEULPK PRFILY. ч УЧСЪЙ У ФЕН ЮФП ЧВМЙЪЙ ГЧЕФ РТЕДНЕФБ ТБЪМЙЮБЕФУС МХЮЫЕ ЧУЕЗП, Б РП НЕТЕ ХДБМЕОЙС ФЕТСЕФ ОБУЩЭЕООПУФШ Й УЙОЕЕФ Ч УЙМХ ЪБЛПОПЧ ЧПЪДХЫОПК РЕТУРЕЛФЙЧЩ, РТЕДНЕФ ОБУЩЭЕООПЗП ГЧЕФБ ЧПУРТЙОЙНБЕФУС ЮЕМПЧЕЛПН ЛБЛ ТБУРПМПЦЕООЩК ВПМЕЕ ВМЙЪЛП, ЮЕН НБМПОБУЩЭЕООПЗП ГЧЕФБ.

ULBSCHCHBEFUUS Y TBMYUOPE RTEMPNMEOYE ITHUFBMYLPN ZMBB MKHYUEK: GCHEFPPCHPE Y'MKHYUEOYE U VPMSHYPK DMYOPK CHPMOSHCH RTEMPNMSEFUS ITHUFBMYLPN RPD NEOSHYN HZMPN, YUEN LPTPPCHPE-YPMOHEPYU. fBLYN PVTBPN, ITHUFBMYL DYZHZHETEOGYTHEF RPFPL CH ЪBCHYUYNPUFY PF CHPMOPCHPK IBTBLFETYUFYLY Y RTPEGYTHEF YЪPVTBTSEOYE CH TBOSHI FPYULBI RTSNPC, RETREOYLHMSTOPUKF YRPETIU. YuEN LPTPYUE ChPMOSHCH UCHEFPCHPZP RPFPLB, FEN DBMSHYE TBURPMPTSOOOSCHN PF OBVMADBFEMS VHDHF LBBFSHUS RTEDNEF YMY RMPULPUFSH, PLTBYEOOSCHE CH IPMPDOSHK GCHEF. ZhZhZHELF CHSHUFHRBOYS Y PFUFKHRBOYS GCHEFPCH BCHYUYF Y PF FBLYI ZHBLFPTPCH, LBL TBNET TBUUNBFTYCHBENPZP GCHEFOPZP RSFOB, EZP PFOPYOYE L ZHPOKH RP UFEREOY LPOFTBUFB, EZP OBUSHCHEIEOOPU. UTBCHOEOYE TBMYUOSCHI HZMPCHSCHI TBNETCH GCHEFOPZP RSFOB RPLBBMP, UFP CHMYSOIE HZMPCHPZP TBNETB ULPTEE ULBSHCHCHBEFUS ABOUT CHPURTYSFIY IPMPDOSHHI GCHEFPCH. x FARMSHI GCHEFPCH YZHZHELF RTYVMYTSEOIS YUEFYUE RTPSCHMSEFUS RTY VPMSHYEK UCHEFMPFE Y NEOSHHYEK OBUSHCHEEOOPUFY, X IPMPDOSCHI - RTY RTPFICHPRMPTSOSCHI RPLBBFEMSI.

YЪNEOOOYE GENERAL URPUUPVOP RETECHEUFI GCHEF Y PDOPC ZTHRRSHCH CH DTHZHA. фБЛ, ЦЕМФЩК Й ПТБОЦЕЧЩК ГЧЕФБ, ДПЧЕДЕООЩЕ ДП РТЕДЕМШОПК ОБУЩЭЕООПУФЙ, НПЗХФ ЧПУРТЙОЙНБФШУС ХЦЕ ЛБЛ ПФУФХРБАЭЙЕ РП УТБЧОЕОЙА У УЙОЙНЙ НБМПК ОБУЩЭЕООПУФЙ Й УТБЧОЙФЕМШОП ЧЩУПЛПК УЧЕФМПФЩ, ЛПФПТЩЕ ПГЕОЙЧБМЙУШ ЛБЛ ЧЩУФХРБАЭЙЕ. ChPNPTSOPUFSH PGEOLY PVTBIGPCH IEMEOPZP GCHEFB FP Ch LBYUEUFCHE PFUFKHRBAEYI, FP Ch LBYUEUFCHE ChSHUFKHRBAEII BUFBCHMSEF PFOEUFY IEMEOSCHK GCHEF CH PUPVHA ZTHRRH RTPUFTBOUFCHEMOOP.

Y ZHZHELF RTYVMYTSEOIS Y HDBMEOYS ULBSHCHCHBEFUUS YUEFUE RTY DPUFBFPYuOPK UFEREOY LPOFTBUFB PVTBGBGB U ZHPOPN. h ZTHRRE CHSHCHUFHRBAEYI GCHEFPCH LZHZHELF ULBSCCHBMUS UYMSHOEE CH FEI UMHYUBSI, LPZDB PVTBIGSCH VSCHMY OBYUYFEMSHOP UCHEFMEE ZHPOB. RUYIPMPZYUEULYK BURELF CHPURTYSFYS YUEMPCHELPN GCHEFPPCHPZP PLTKHTSEOIS CHLMAYUBEF FBLPK ZHBLFPT CHPURTYSFYS, LBL "GCHEFPPCHPE RTEDPYUFEOYE".

Ruiipmpzi Uyufbaf, YuFP Gchefpchpe Rtedrpuyuyu Zhptnefus about Puopche Buupgybgyk y Kommersy PF RPMB, Fenretbneofb Yuembchelb, Ruyyuulpzp. vPMSHYPK YOFETEU RTEDUFBCHMSAF DBOOSCHE b. RECRETB, x. hZHZHEMSHNBOB, e.-m. tBCIB, n. GYNNETNBO Y DTHZYI P GCHEFPCHPN RTEDRPYUFEOYY X DEFEK. HUFBOCHMEOP, UFP OE CHUE GCHEFB CH PYOBLPPPK NETE RTCHMELBAF CHOYNBOYE DEFEC. yNEAEEYEUS DBOOSCHE RPCHPMSAF PIBTBLFETYJPCHBFSH GCHEFPCHPE RTEDPYUFEOYE X DEFEK DPYLPMSHOPZP Y NMBDYYEZP YLPMSHOPZP CHPTBUFB UMEDHAEIN PVTBPN: DEFI MAVSF STLIE GCHEFBUFSHCHE; CH LBYUEUFCHE YЪMAVMEOOPZP GCHEFB DEFI NMBDYEZP CHPЪTBUFB YUBEE CHUEZP OBSHCHCHBAF LTBUOSCHK; RETCHSHCHE FTY GCHEFB RTEDPYUFEOYS X DEFEK TBURPMBZBAFUS CH FBLPK RPUMEDPCHBFEMSHOPUFY: LTBUOSCHK, UYOYK, CEMFSHCHK; DEFI NMBDYEZP CHPTBUFB PFCHETZBAF OESTLE, VMELMSHCHE PFFEOLY GCHEFCH; ПЮЕОШ ЧБЦОЩН ДМС ТЕВЕОЛБ СЧМСЕФУС ЬЖЖЕЛФ ОПЧЙЪОЩ (ЕУМЙ Л ГЧЕФБН, ЛПФПТЩЕ ТЕВЕОПЛ ЧЙДЙФ РПУФПСООП, ДПВБЧЙФШ ЛБЛПК-ФП ОПЧЩК, ФП РЕТЧПЕ ЧТЕНС, РПЛБ ТЕВЕОПЛ ОЕ РТЙЧЩЛОЕФ Л ОПЧПНХ ГЧЕФХ, ЬФПФ ГЧЕФ РТЙЧМЕЛБЕФ ЕЗП ЧОЙНБОЙЕ Ч ОБЙВПМШЫЕК УФЕРЕОЙ).

DBOOSCHE NOPZYI BCHFPTPCH (e.-m. tBKIB, n. gynnetnbo, m. yChBTG, e. rPOPNBTECHPK) RPLBBMY, UFP GCHEFPCHPE RTEDRPYUFEOYE YЪNEOSEFUS U ChPТBUFPN, OP YЪNEOSEFUS OE VEURPTSDPYU. h RTEDEMBI YLBMSCH YUYUFSHCHI URELFTBMSHOSHCHI GCHEFPCH GCHEFCHPE RTEDPYUFEOYE U ChPTBUFPN YЪNEOSEFUS PF ZTHRRSHCH FARMSHI L ZTHRRE IPMPDOSHCHI GCHEFCH. rP NETE CHЪTPUMEOYS DEFI CHUE YUBEE CH LBYUEUFCHE YЪMAVMEOOOSCHI PFFEOLPCH OBSCCHCHBAF VPMEE UMPTSOSCHE, RTYZMHYEOOSCHE, "MPNBOSHCHE" FPOB, NEOSEFUUS Y RTIOGYR RPUFTPEOYS GCHEFPCHPK RBTSCH. DEFI NMBDYEZP CHPTBUFB UFTPSF RBTSC RTEINKHEEUFCHEOOP RP RTYOGYRKH LPOFTBUFB, X DEFEK UFBTYYEZP CHPTBUFB OBYVPMEE TBURTPUFTBOEOOSCHN UFBOPCHYFUS RTYOGYR OABOUOPZP UPYUEFBOYS GCHEFPH.

ЬУФЕФЙЮЕУЛБС УПУФБЧМСАЭБС ТЕБЛГЙЙ ЮЕМПЧЕЛБ ОБ ГЧЕФ УЖПТНЙТПЧБМБУШ РПД ЧПЪДЕКУФЧЙЕН ПЛТХЦБАЭЕК РТЙТПДЩ, ЛПФПТБС УОБВЦБМБ ЮЕМПЧЕЛБ ТБЪМЙЮОПК ЙОЖПТНБГЙЕК, Й ПДОЙН ЙЪ СЪЩЛПЧ, ЛПФПТЩН РТЙТПДБ ЗПЧПТЙМБ У ЮЕМПЧЕЛПН, ВЩМ ГЧЕФ. h UCHPEK RTBLFYUEULPK DEFEMSHOPUFY YUEMPCHEL RTYCHSHL CHPURTOYINBFSH LBTsDPE GCHEFCHPE RSFOP LBL ЪOBL, BLTERMSS ЪB LBTsDSHCHN GCHEFPN RTYUHEEEE FPMSHLP ENH Y YUEFLP ЪBZHOOPOYUYEPCHE. fBL, BEOMOSCHK GCHEF CH EZYREFULYI FELUFBI RYTBNYD POBBYUBM VEUUNETFYE. yLPMSCH YLPOPRYUY LBOPOYITPCHBMY GCHEFB Y DEMBMY YI UTEDUFCHPN CHSHTBTSEOIS TEMYZYPYOSCHI RPUFHMBFCH. уРЕГЙБМШОБС ТБУЛТБУЛБ МЙГБ Ч ФТБДЙГЙПООПН СРПОУЛПН ФЕБФТЕ УЙНЧПМЙЪЙТПЧБМБ ТБЪМЙЮОЩЕ ЬНПГЙПОБМШОЩЕ УПУФПСОЙС - ЗОЕЧ, РЕЮБМШ Й Ф. Д. йУФПТЙС ТБЪЧЙФЙС ГЧЕФПЧЩИ РТЕДУФБЧМЕОЙК РПЛБЪЩЧБЕФ ОБН, ЮФП ГЧЕФ НПЦЕФ РТЙПВТЕФБФШ ХУФПКЮЙЧПЕ ЪОБЮЕОЙЕ, ПВПЪОБЮБС ЛПОЛТЕФОЩЕ РТЕДНЕФЩ ЙМЙ СЧМЕОЙС.

БУУПГЙБФЙЧОЩК ИБТБЛФЕТ НЩЫМЕОЙС РПЪЧПМСЕФ ЮЕМПЧЕЛХ ПГЕОЙФШ ХУФПКЮЙЧПУФШ ЬФЙИ УЧСЪЕК, РТЙЪОБФШ УРПУПВОПУФШ ГЧЕФБ ЧЩУФХРБФШ Ч ЛБЮЕУФЧЕ ЪОБЛБ ПРТЕДЕМЕООПК ЪОБЛПЧПК УЙФХБГЙЙ, ЧЩРПМОСФШ ПРТЕДЕМЕООЩЕ УЕНБОФЙЮЕУЛЙЕ ЖХОЛГЙЙ. рТЙЪОБОЙЕ ЪБ ГЧЕФПН ЪОБЛПЧПК УХЭОПУФЙ ЧПЪНПЦОП МЙЫШ У РПЪЙГЙК НБТЛУЙУФУЛП-МЕОЙОУЛПК ЖЙМПУПЖЙЙ, ТБЪТБВПФБЧЫЕК РПМПЦЕОЙЕ П ФПН, ЮФП ЕДЙОУФЧП ПВЯЕЛФБ Й УХВЯЕЛФБ СЧМСЕФУС ЙУИПДОПК ФПЮЛПК ЖПТНЙТПЧБОЙС ЬУФЕФЙЮЕУЛПЗП ПФОПЫЕОЙС Й, Ч ЮБУФОПУФЙ, ЙУИПДОПК ФПЮЛПК ЖПТНЙТПЧБОЙС ПФОПЫЕОЙК Ч УЙУФЕНЕ "ЮЕМПЧЕЛ - ГЧЕФПЧБС УТЕДБ". еДЙОУФЧП ПВЯЕЛФБ Й УХВЯЕЛФБ ДЕМБЕФ ЧПЪНПЦОЩН ЙУРПМШЪПЧБОЙЕ РТЙОГЙРБ ДЧПКУФЧЕООПЗП ТБУУНПФТЕОЙС ПВЯЕЛФБ, ЧЧЕДЕООПЗП Ч НБФЕНБФЙЮЕУЛХА МПЗЙЛХ лБТТЙ, ЙЪ ЛПФПТПЗП УМЕДХЕФ, ЮФП ПВЯЕЛФЩ Ч ПРТЕДЕМЕООЩИ ХУМПЧЙСИ НПЗХФ ПГЕОЙЧБФШУС УХВЯЕЛФПН Й ЧЩУФХРБФШ Ч ЛБЮЕУФЧЕ РТЕДНЕФПЧ Й Ч ЛБЮЕУФЧЕ ОБЪЧБОЙК УБНЙИ УЕВС. DMS GCHEFB LFB DCHPKUFCHEOOPUFSH PYUEOSH IBTBLFETOB. LPZBB UNPFTIN on the HCHEFPCP RSFOP, FP Chvpurtoynben Ratezd Chuzep Pvylefikhu Ufptpo counthmois, F. E. NSHECHBEN GCHF, UPPFFOPUS RISP at the PDHRR URTHRR Fengpchn, UBNSHNSHNE PEDEMSEN h FFPN UMHYUBE NSCH ZPCHPTYN PV "PFOPUYFEMSHOPN" OBYUEOYY GCHEFPCHPZP RSFOB LBL LMENEOFB PRTEDEMEOOOPK OBLPCHPK UYUFENSCH.

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In color science, there are three laws of optical color mixing, the knowledge of which is necessary for artists in their practical work. Small dots, strokes or stripes of various colors applied to the surface appear to be uniform from a certain distance, and different colors merge into one color. The first law of optical displacement is as follows: for any chromatic color, you can choose a chromatic color that, when optically mixed with the first in a certain quantitative ratio, gives an achromatic color. Colors that can give an achromatic color in optical mixtures are called complementary colors. It can only be strictly defined colors.

Lemon yellow is complementary to ultramarine, bluish green (the color of emerald green) to carmine red, ultramarine to lemon yellow, and carmine red to bluish green. The second law of optical mixing is that when optical mixing of non-complementary colors, colors are obtained in their color tone intermediate between the mixed colors. Mixing yellow with red produces an orange color, mixing yellow with green produces blue, and so on. The third law of optical mixing is that colors that look the same in optical mixtures give the same results, regardless of what the physical composition of the light fluxes that cause these colors to feel. “For example, monochromatic orange of the same color, whose wavelength is 610 microns. and the same tone orange, composed of waves 590 and 630 microns. in optical mixtures with other colors they give exactly the same results, although in one case the color is monochromatic, and in the other it is complex. However, the results of optical mixing of colors differ from the results of color mixing, which artists use in the practice of painting. The results of optical mixing of colors are given in table 1, the results of mixing colors - in table 2.

Artists often apply the laws of optical color mixing in painting. It is known that the creative work of the post-impressionists Paul Signac and Georges Seurat is based on the laws of optical summation of colors and the laws of contrast. Referring to the laws of optical color mixing, set forth in Chevrel's book, Paul Signac insisted on the advantages of optical color mixing in painting compared to ordinary color mixing. In the program book of post-impressionism, Paul Signac wrote: "Any material mixture leads not only to darkening, but also to discoloration, any optical mixture, on the contrary, leads to clarity and brilliance." But, as can be seen from Table 1, when additional colors and those close to them are optically mixed, color discoloration also occurs. The laws of optical mixing in the practice of art were known not only by post-impressionists, but also by the masters of ancient Fayum painting, the creators of Pompeian paintings, the masters of the Venetian school of painting of the High Renaissance, Diego Velazquez and many other artists.

Table 1. Optical Color Mixing Results

Violet	indigo blue		bluish green		greenish yellow
	Purple	Dark pink	whitish pink		whitish yellow	golden yellow	Orange
Orange	Dark pink	whitish pink		whitish yellow
		whitish pink	whitish green	whitish green	greenish yellow
greenish yellow		whitish green	whitish green
	whitish blue	Aquamarine	bluish green
bluish green	Aquamarine	Aquamarine
	indigo blue

table 2. Color mixing results

	Cinnabar red	Sienna burnt	Cadmium oran. average	Ocher yellow	cadmium yellow	Green emerald	Ultramarine
	Dark reddish brown with a slight purple tint		dark brown	Dark yellow-brown, slightly greenish	Dark grayish brown, slightly green.	Dark yellow greenish cloudy	Dark greyish bluish green	Almost black with a bluish tinge	Dark greenish blue
	dark lilac	Dark reddish brown. with a purple tint	Very dark olive brown	Bottle	greyish green		bluish green turquoise		Sky blue honey agaric, slightly greenish
Ultramarine blue	Violet	Brownish red-violet	Dark Brown with vish. shade	Grey-yellow brownish	grayish yellowish green	Hazy yellowish green	Somewhat hazy turquoise	Blue, slightly violet. honey agaric
Green emerald	Almost gray dark	Almost gray dark	Brownish grayish greenish	hazy greenish	yellow green	Green bluish tint
Cadmium yellow medium	Pinkish brown pinkish-yellow hue	Orange	tan	yellow-orange		Yellow, slightly lime. shade
Ocher yellow	pinkish brownish	brownish orange	tan	yellow-orange brownish	sandy yellow
Cadmium orange	Reddish orange	Orange	orange brown	yellowish orange
Sienna burnt	Red-brown	red brick	Cor. red shade
Cinnabar red		red scarlet
	Kras. pur. shade

Color strokes on a local spot of color in the frescoes of Theophany the Greek and his students testify to the knowledge of the laws of spatial mixing of colors, which revives the color in the icons of the Russian school. In painting, the methods of optical color mixing have been and will be used, but they can only be considered as one of the possible methods for constructing a color system or coloring of a picture.

Optical color mixing

86. J. SERA. The circus

a. Purple ink print

b. Yellow paint print

in. blue ink print

d. Black ink print

e. Four-color print

Mechanical color mixing

Notes:

§6 Mixing colors

Naturally visible colors are usually the result of a mixture of spectral colors.

There are three main ways of mixing colors: optical, spatial and mechanical.

Optical color mixing

Optical color mixing is based on the wave nature of light. It can be obtained with a very fast rotation of the circle, the sectors of which are painted in the required colors.

Remember how you rotated a spinning top in childhood and watched with surprise the magical transformations of color. It is easy to make a special top for experiments on optical color mixing and conduct a series of experiments (see exercise 11). It can be seen that the prism decomposes the white beam of light into its component parts - the colors of the spectrum, and the top mixes these colors back into white.

In the science of "Color Science" (coloristics), color is considered as a physical phenomenon. Optical and spatial color mixing is different from mechanical color mixing.

The primary colors in optical mixing are red, green and blue.

Primary colors in mechanical color mixing are red, blue and yellow.

Complementary colors (two chromatic colors) when optically mixed give an achromatic color (gray).

Remember how you were in a theater or circus and enjoyed the festive mood that colored lighting creates. If you carefully follow the three beams of the spotlights: red, blue and green, you will notice that as a result of the optical mixing of these beams, a white color will be obtained (Fig. 84).

84. Optical color mixing

You can also conduct such an experiment on obtaining a multi-color image by optical color mixing: take three projectors, put color filters (red, blue, green) on them and, simultaneously crossing these rays, get almost all colors on a white screen, approximately the same as in the circus.

Areas of the screen illuminated both blue and green will appear blue. When blue and red radiation are added together, a purple color is obtained on the screen, and when green and red are added, a yellow color is unexpectedly formed.

3* Optics (from the Greek optike - the science of visual perception), a branch of physics that studies the processes of light emission, its propagation in various media and the interaction of light with matter.

85. Mechanical color mixing

Compare: if we mix paints, we get completely different colors (ill. 85).

Of course, there are more sophisticated devices for optical color mixing, such as a TV. Every day, when you turn on a color TV, you get on the screen an image with many shades of color, and it is based on a mixture of red, green and blue radiation.

Spatial color mixing

86. J. SERA. The circus

Spatial mixing of colors is obtained by looking at some distance at small color spots touching each other. These spots will merge into one solid spot, which will have a color obtained from mixing the colors of small areas.

The fusion of colors at a distance is explained by light scattering, structural features of the human eye, and occurs according to the rules of optical mixing.

It is important for the artist to take into account the patterns of spatial mixing of colors when creating any picture, since it will necessarily be viewed from a certain distance. It is especially necessary to remember about obtaining possible effects of mixing colors in space when performing paintings of considerable size, designed to be perceived from a long distance.

This property of color was perfectly used in their work by impressionist artists, especially those who used the technique of separate strokes and painted with small colored spots, which even gave the name to a whole trend in painting - pointillism (from the French word "pointe" - point).

When viewing the picture from a certain distance, small multi-colored strokes visually merge and cause a feeling of a single color.

87. PAUL SIGNAC. Papal Palace in Avignon

88. J. BALLA. The girl who ran out onto the balcony

An interesting experiment on the decomposition of color into components was carried out by the artist Giacomo Balla. He decomposed not only color, but also movement into its constituent phases, using the principle of successive fixation of movement, as when taking an instant photograph. As a result of this, an amazing painting “The Girl Running Out onto the Balcony” (Fig. 88) was born, which only when viewed from a distance on the basis of spatial-optical color mixing reveals the author’s intention.

Spatial mixing of colors is based on obtaining images of various color shades in polygraphy when printing from raster forms. When viewing from a certain distance areas formed by small differently colored dots, you do not distinguish their colors, but see the color as spatially mixed.

All color reproductions in this book and many others are printed using color separations into the three primary colors (magenta, yellow and cyan); during printing, these colors are mixed by successively superimposing them (mechanical mixing). Black is added as an outline or as needed, and unprinted white paper gives the effect of white. If you look at an enlarged fragment of a four-color print from close and far distances, you can clearly observe the effects of mechanical and spatial color mixing.

89. Stages of printing illustrations in polygraphy

a. Purple ink print

b. Yellow paint print

in. blue ink print

d. Black ink print

e. Four-color print

90. Enlarged fragment of a four-color print

Mechanical color mixing

Mechanical mixing of colors occurs when we mix paints, for example, on a palette, paper, canvas. Here it should be clearly distinguished that color and paint are not the same thing. Color has an optical (physical) nature, while paint has a chemical nature.

There are many more flowers in nature than there are colors in your kit.

The color of paints is much less saturated than the color of many objects. The lightest paint (white) is only 25-30 times lighter than the darkest (black) paint. A seemingly insoluble problem arises - to convey in painting all the richness and diversity of the color relationships of nature with such meager means.

But artists successfully solve this problem using knowledge of color science, choosing certain tonal and coloristic relationships.

In painting with different colors, depending on their combinations, one and the same color can be conveyed and, conversely, different colors can be conveyed with one paint.

Interesting effects can be achieved by adding a little black paint to each color (Fig. 91).

Sometimes mechanical mixing of colors can achieve results similar to optical mixing of colors, but as a rule they do not match.

A vivid example - mixing all the colors on the palette does not give white, as in optical mixing, but dirty gray, brown, brown or black.

91. An example of mechanical mixing of colors with black paint

Look at the drawing of the dancing children and see how the colors actually change when one sheer fabric is placed over another.

92. Dancing children. Overlay color mixing

color mixing

Mixing colors is one of the most important problems in the theory and practice of the initial stage of teaching painting. There are three basic laws of optical color mixing.

First law:The main feature of any color wheel is the ratio of opposite (relative to the center of the circle) colors, which, when mixed, gives an achromatic color. These colors are calledadditional.Complementary colors are strictly defined: tored - green, yellow - blue, etc.

Second lawis of practical importance and suggests that mixing colors that lie close to each other on the color wheel gives the feeling of a new color lying between the mixed colors. So, for example, a mixture of red and yellow gives orange, yellow and blue - green. Thus, by mixing the three primary colors (red, yellow and blue) in different proportions, you can get any color tone "subjunctive" optical effect.

Third law:the same colors give the same mixtures. We also mean those cases when colors are mixed that are the same in hue, but different in saturation, as well as chromatic colors with achromatic ones - a "subtractive" optical effect.

In painting, the desired color can be obtained in many ways. For example, put the paint in its pure form without mixing with others or get the desired color by mixing two or more paints.

Mixing of paints with each other can be mechanical or optical (See tab. 1-2). In this case, the mixed paints can change their color hue, saturation and lightness.

Table 1. Results of optical color mixing.

	Violet	Indigo	Blue	bluish green	Green	greenish yellow	Yellow
Red	Purple	Dark pink	whitish pink	White	whitish yellow	golden yellow	Orange
Orange	Dark pink	whitish pink	White	whitish yellow	Yellow	Yellow
Yellow	White	whitish pink	whitish- green	whitish- green	greenish yellow
greenish yellow	White	whitish- green	whitish- green	Green
Green	whitish- blue	Aquamarine	bluish green
bluish green	Aquamarine	Aquamarine
Blue	Indigo blue

Table 2. The results of mechanical mixing of paints.

		Cinnabar		orange average
	reddish purple-ish ott.				greyish	greenish-cotton	then blue-	with blue-	greenish
	dark purple	reddish with violet			greyish				greenish
	Violet	Brown violet	Dark Brown	Grey-yellow.	greyish yellowish green	yellow-cotton	cloudy turquoise
			greyish green-		yellow green	bluish
	pinkish pinkish yellow ott.					leg ott.
	pinkish				Sand yellow.
	Red-cotton	Orange	cotton wool brown
	Red brown	red brick	woolly reddish- that Rev.
Cinnabar		red scarlet
	purple ott.

There is some difference between the results of optical and mechanical mixing of paints, due to the physical nature of the paints. To better imagine the difference in the final result of optical and mechanical mixing of colors and paints, the following example can be given: on a rotating disk, yellow and blue will give a gray mixture of an achromatic color, while mechanical mixing of the same colors on a palette will give green paint.

When mixing paints, you need to keep in mind not only the color characteristic, but also three ways to compose them:

1) a method of mosaic connection of small strokes (optical color mixing);

2) a method of a simple mechanical mixture of paints on a palette;

3) glazing method - sequential application of several layers of paint one on top of the other.

Mixtures of paints by chemical composition can be homogeneous and heterogeneous. Within the same group, taken separately - glazing, semi-glazing or body, they are homogeneous: they give even fills and gradual transitions in lightness and color shades. Heterogeneous mixtures are obtained by mixing glazing paints with body paints; at the same time, the fills become uneven, with smudges and breakdowns, and their light fastness often falls. Paints included in the semiglazing group give satisfactory fills with both glaze and body paints.

An important circumstance that should be taken into account by a novice watercolor painter is the particularity of paints when they dry.lighten and lose more or less color saturation.

To obtain a strong, saturated color, it is recommended to use paints with a higher color.

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color mixing

All the colors we see in natural conditions are the result of optical color mixing.

There are three main ways to mix colors: optical, spatial and mechanical.

optical mixing. Optical color mixing is based on the wave nature of light. It can be obtained with a very fast rotation of the circle, the sectors of which are painted in the required colors.

Remember how you rotated a spinning top in childhood and watched with surprise the magical transformations of color. It is easy to make a special top for experiments on optical color mixing and carry out a series of experiments. You can see that the prism decomposes the white beam of light into its component parts - the colors of the spectrum, and the top mixes these colors back into white.

In color science, color is considered as a physical phenomenon. Optical and spatial color mixing is different from mechanical color mixing.

The primary colors in optical mixing are red, green and blue.

Primary colors in mechanical color mixing are red, blue and yellow.

Complementary colors (two chromatic colors) when optically mixed give an achromatic color (gray). For example, lemon yellow and ultramarine blue, orange and blue.

The first law of color mixing

For each chromatic color there is another chromatic color, mixing with which produces an achromatic color. Such pairs of colors that mutually neutralize each other are called complementary. Green complements red, orange complements blue, and purple complements yellow. All pairs of complementary colors in the color wheel lie at opposite ends of the diameters.

Remember how you were in a theater or circus and enjoyed the festive mood that colored lighting creates. If you carefully follow the three beams of spotlights: red, blue and green, you will notice that as a result of the optical mixing of these beams, a white color will be obtained.

Areas of the screen illuminated with blue and green light at the same time will appear blue. When blue and red radiation are added together, a purple color is obtained on the screen, and when green and red are added, a yellow color is unexpectedly formed.

Adding all three colored beams, we get white. If black and white slides are installed in the projectors, then you can try to make them colored using colored beams. Without such experience, it is hard to believe that a variety of color shades can be achieved by mixing three rays: blue, green and red. There are also more sophisticated devices for optical color mixing, such as a TV. Every day, when you turn on a color TV, you get on the screen an image with many shades of color, and it is based on a mixture of red, green and blue radiation.

Spatial color mixing It turns out if you look at some distance at small color spots touching each other. These spots will merge into one solid spot, which will have a color obtained from mixing the colors of small areas.

The fusion of colors at a distance is explained by light scattering, structural features of the human eye, and occurs according to the rules of optical mixing.

It is important to take into account the patterns of spatial mixing of colors when creating any composition, since it will necessarily be viewed from a certain distance. It is especially necessary to remember about obtaining possible effects of mixing colors in space when performing large-sized works designed for perception from a long distance.

When viewing the picture from a certain distance, small multi-colored strokes visually merge and cause a feeling of a single color. Mixing orange with purple in this way, we get dark pink, green with orange - yellow.

The second law of color mixing

By optically mixing non-complementary colors, new colors of intermediate hues are obtained. Yellow and red make orange, yellow and green make yellow-green, blue and red make purple.

Surfaces covered with small strokes of different colors are perceived at some distance as having an intermediate color. Strokes of pure red and blue appear purple from a distance. When two colors of different lightness are optically mixed, the visible color will have an average lightness. A white surface covered with a small pattern is perceived from a certain distance as a gray surface.

Spatial mixing of colors is based on obtaining images of various color shades in polygraphy when printing raster forms. When viewed from a certain distance, areas formed by small differently colored dots, you do not distinguish their colors, but see the color as spatially mixed.

All color reproductions are printed using color separations into the three primary colors (magenta, yellow and cyan); during printing, these colors are mixed by successively superimposing them. Black is added as an outline or as needed, and unprinted white paper gives the effect of white.

Mechanical color mixing. Mechanical mixing occurs when we mix paints, for example, on a palette, paper or other material. Here it should be clearly distinguished that color and paint are not the same thing. Color has an optical (physical) nature, while paint has a chemical nature.

Paint is the main means of conveying color. Paints consist of a pigment (finely ground particles of different chemical composition and origin) and a binder.

Depending on the degree of transparency, paints are usually divided into two groups: body (opaque), which cover the surface with a completely opaque layer, and transparent (glazing) paints, in the paint layer of which the light flux passes through, is reflected from the surface of the base and again passes through the paint layer. .

Basic concepts and definitions of pigments

Pigments called highly dispersed inorganic or organic, insoluble in dispersion media, substances that are capable of forming protective, decorative or decorative protective coatings with film formers.

Soluble substances that can color other materials are called dyes.

Pigments fill polymeric organic coatings and give them color, opacity - "hiding power", increase hardness, weather resistance, improve protective, decorative and other properties. Along with pigments, fillers are used to fill polymer films.

Fillers called white or slightly colored highly dispersed natural or synthetic substances that differ from pigments in a lower refractive index of light (n 0 D \u003d 1.45 - 1.75) Fillers do not have protective and decorative properties, cannot partially replace expensive pigments and improve the properties of paints and coatings. Fillers often perform specific functions (for example, change the rheological properties of paints, reinforce films), so they are sometimes called functional pigments or filler pigments.

Pigmented paint materials called dispersions of pigments and fillers in solutions or emulsions of film-forming substances or their dry mixtures. Paints and varnishes may also contain solvents, thinners, plasticizers, desiccants, hardeners and other auxiliary substances. Pigmented paints and varnishes - paints, enamels, primers and fillers are intended for the formation of colored opaque protective and decorative coatings or various layers in multilayer paint and varnish coatings. They are used for painting products made of metals, wood, plaster, fabrics, leather, plastics, paper and other materials. Standard terminology for paints and varnishes is not yet installed.

Paints -- this general term refers to all types of pigmented paints and varnishes. It is customary to classify and designate paints by the type of film-forming substances or by purpose.

Oil paints are made on the basis of drying oils or drying oils in the form of thick pastes or ready-to-use suspensions

enamel paints, or simply enamel dispersions of highly dispersed pigments and fillers in organic or aqueous solutions or dispersions of film formers. Enamels form on painted surfaces after curing ("drying") opaque colored films with different gloss and microtexture. Designed for top layers of coatings resistant to weathering to water, and special grades - to gasoline, oils, acids or alkalis.

Enamels are also called coatings based on fusible glasses, painted with heat-resistant inorganic pigments. Are applied to drawing on a product from metals and ceramics at high temperatures. Give products color, wear resistance, electrical insulating properties and gloss; are used to cover sanitary equipment (baths, sinks), dishes, equipment for the food and chemical industries, etc. These enamels do not apply to paints and varnishes.

Water based paints are made on the basis of dispersions (emulsions, latexes) of lyophobic polymers or micellar solutions of lyophilic film formers in water.

Powder paints mixtures of pigments, fillers and dry oligomeric or polymeric organic film formers, which, when melted, form continuous film coatings.

Primers -- dispersions of anti-corrosion pigments, sometimes with fillers, in film-forming substances with high adhesion to the painted surface. Primers are designed to create a strong adhesion of the coating to the substrate and to the overlying layers, to protect metals from corrosion, including tread corrosion, to fill the pores of wood and plaster, to impart water and air impermeability to fabrics and other materials, to protect against decay of wood or rust conversion of ferrous metals. . Primers are applied directly to the surface of the products prepared for painting, and after they have cured, putty or enamels are applied directly to the primer layer.

Putties -- paste-like or viscous highly filled paints and varnishes intended for leveling rough and porous surfaces, sealing grooves, potholes, seams, joints and other surface defects before painting. Putties consist of film formers, fillers and cheap, most often natural, pigments and small amounts of solvents. They are applied, as a rule, on previously primed surfaces with a layer up to 300 microns thick; before applying the paint layers, the putty layer is subjected to dry or wet grinding.

The value of pigments and pigmented paints and varnishes in the national economy

The most accessible and common method of protection against corrosion is the application of protective or protective and decorative paint coatings. The durability of expertly painted products and structures is increased by 2 to 10 times. Pigments in protective organic coatings not only delay the corrosion of metals, but also protect the polymer coating itself from premature aging and destruction, which gives a huge economic effect.

A significant part of paints and varnishes, and consequently, pigments, is consumed for painting the exterior and interior surfaces of buildings. The right choice of color and texture for finishing residential and industrial premises and the periodic restoration of color are not only aesthetic, but also of great sanitary-hygienic and psycho-physiological significance, reducing fatigue and increasing people's working capacity.

Up to 40% of all produced pigments are used in the production of plastics, synthetic fibers, rubber products, linoleum, artificial leather, building materials, ceramics, as well as medical and cosmetic preparations. Lead oxides are used for the manufacture of crystal and optical glass, batteries and other products.

Purpose of pigments. Pigments are solid components of composite paints and varnishes - paints, enamels, primers, fillers and powder compositions. Interacting with organic film formers, pigments create structural networks with them, increasing the strength and durability of coatings. Pigments and especially some types of fillers of acicular and scaly form reinforce the film, reduce its gas and water permeability, increase the mechanical strength and weather resistance of paint coatings.

The pigment particles in the film, by absorbing, reflecting and scattering evenly or selectively the rays of the incident light, impart a white, black or color color to the film, completely hiding the color of the substrate under the film. At the same time, the pigments protect the organic polymeric substance of the film from destruction under the influence of sunlight, delaying its destruction, and several times increase the durability of the coatings. Many pigments have anti-corrosion properties. Being in the composition of soils and directly adjacent to the surface of the painted metal, they have a passivating effect and delay corrosion. Some pigments have special specific properties and are only intended for printing, artistic, signal, luminous camouflage, thermal signal, heat-resistant paints, antifouling in sea water, bactericidal and other coatings.

The mass fraction of pigments and fillers in paints and enamels is 20 - 50%, in primers - up to 60%, in putties - up to 70%

Classification of pigments. Generally accepted, reflecting all peculiarities There are no classification pigments. Inorganic pigments can be classified according to the following features.

1. Origin pigments are divided into natural, obtained by grinding, beneficiation or heat treatment of rocks and minerals, and synthetic, obtained as a result of chemical reactions.

2. By appointment Pigments are divided into decorative, protective-decorative, protective (anti-corrosion) and special purpose.

3. by color distinguish achromatic(white, black, neutral grey) and chromatic(all color) pigments.

4. By chemical composition pigments are divided into oxides, salts, metals; despite the seeming greatest validity, the chemical classification has no practical significance, since the chemical composition is not always the determining parameter.

In table. 1 shows the most practical classification of the most important inorganic pigments, combining the principles of purpose and color, which allows you to correctly navigate the choice of pigments.

Table 1

Classification of inorganic pigments

Color pigments	Appointment of pmgments
	Decorative and protective	Anti-corrosion	Purpose*
Achromatic pigments
	Titanium dioxide Zinc white	White lead zinc phosphate	Aluminum hydroxide, barium sulfate Type Zinc Aluminate, Zinc Sulfide Sv Titanates of magnesium, aluminum T Barium Borate B
	Technical carbon (soot, black) Mixed iron(II,III) oxide		Titanates of iron (III), copper, cobalt T, X
Chromatic pigments
	Lead crown lemon Lead crown yellow Zinc crown painting Yellow iron oxide pigment Natural and synthetic ocher	Strontium crown lead cyanomide Zinc crown primer Barium-potassium crown	Nickel, iron (II) titanates T, X Kadmopon T, X Cadmium sulfide X
	Synthetic iron oxide pigments Natural red lead, mummy Kron lead-molybdate	Red lead	Copper(I) oxide P Cadmium sulfide selenide
orange		Lead orange crown
	iron blue Ultramarine		Cobalt aluminate T, X
	Chromium oxide emerald green Mixed greens (yellow + blue)	Chromium phosphate	Chromium titanate T,X Cobalt chromate T, X Mixed oxides (for example, CoOnZnO) T, X

Type of. printing, Sv for lighting compositions, T heat-resistant, B bactericidal, X for art paints, P antifouling.

Organic pigments have only decorative properties and are classified by color and classes of organic compounds.

The most important properties of pigments. Technical products used as pigments must have a set of properties that vary depending on the purpose of the pigments, the composition and properties of film formers, the curing conditions and the operation of pigmented paint and varnish coatings.

Physical properties: crystal structure, light refractive index, color, density, hardness, particle shape and size (dispersity), specific surface area, bulk density, solubility.

Chemical properties: pH of water extract, resistance to water and chemicals (acids, alkalis), reactivity, acid-base properties of the surface.

Physiochemical properties: wettability (hydrophilicity or olephilicity), packing density and strength of particles in aggregates, adsorption capacity (adsorption potential) of the surface, photochemical activity, light resistance, phototropism, ability to change the electrode potential of the surface (passivating effect).

Technological properties: hiding power (covering power), coloring power (intensity), oil absorption, dispersibility, critical volume content, structuring power, weather resistance, compatibility with other components of the ink system.

Environmental requirements: harmlessness, non-volatility, non-sprayability, absence or complete use of waste and by-products in production.

Economic indicators: the availability of a raw material base for mass production, the possibility of implementing waste-free technology, the lowest consumption of pigment to achieve the desired performance, long service life of pigmented coatings, minimal labor and energy costs both for the production of the pigment itself and for pigmenting paintwork materials.

It is difficult to find substances that would combine the listed various properties, so the number of pigments is small - only a few dozen. Traditional carriers of pigment properties are oxides, hydroxides, intermediate and basic salts of metals of variable valence (iron, lead, chromium, titanium) and some others (zinc, aluminum, barium).

To obtain the desired crystal structure, shape and particle size, crystallization nuclei and structure stabilizers are introduced in the process of pigment synthesis. Ions of other metals are sometimes introduced into the crystal lattice.

In order to reduce the surface energy and prevent coagulation of colloidal particles, photoactivity and other undesirable effects, external modifiers are introduced into the pigments by depositing silicon dioxide, aluminum oxide, etc. on the surface of the particles.

To impart wettability, bond with film formers, improve dispersibility and increase the stability of dispersions, the surface of the particles is modified with organic surfactants. The introduction of various additives and modifiers reduces the mass fraction of the main substance in technical pigments to 85 - 95%, and sometimes more. mixing color pigment paintwork

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